If gods were able to save people at their calling, how would worshippers call on their gods? One of the most common ways of invoking gods was through prayers and vows. Different cults might have different rituals for making prayers or vows, but they were mostly made by worshippers in oral or written forms. Different terms were used in sources when people prayed (qi 祈 and dao 禱) or made formal commitments (yuan 願). Vows (shi 誓 or xu 許), in contrast, were a more intense form of prayers and usually included an explicit expression of reciprocity. Some vows were made in a way that resembled making a promise to gods. It was believed that some gods kept a register of the vows made by worshippers, which, upon fulfilment, would be written off with ‘a writing brush in colour.’
Prayers have survived mostly in written forms. Some were even inscribed on stone tablets or on mountain cliffs. Written prayers, such as the ‘invocation prose’ (zhuwen 祝文) or the Daoist-style ‘green memorial’ (qingci 青詞/辭), were used to report or pray to gods in ritual such as sacrifices. On such occasions, the usual process would include reading out and presenting the written prayer, similar to the submission of a formal memorial to a ruler. The tone used in talking to gods could also vary depending on the level of urgency or earnestness. A prayer would ideally exhibit a tone of pleading, but sometimes it could become so intense as to coerce and threaten gods (which is not seen in Daoist prayers). Below are selected examples of prayers for both official and private purposes, in which people prayed for rain or drought relief (2.1, 2.5), and for safe travel or childbirth (2.2, 2.3). Some prayers for specific purposes had become so common that they could be pre-composed. In such templates, not only could worshippers’ names and dates be left in blank and filled in later, so too could a god’s name, title, and the matter in which he assisted. Two examples from around the 15th century show how people used ready-made templates to pray for thriving business (2.4) and for fulfilling vows (2.6).
2.1 Official prayer for rain
洪維上帝，以斯民屬于山川群望；亦如天子，以斯民屬于守土之臣。惟吏與神，其職惟通。殄民廢職，其咎維均。哀我邦人，遭此凶旱，流殍之餘，其命如髮。而飛 蝗流毒，遺種布野。使其變躍飛騰，則桑柘麥禾，舉羅其災，民其罔有孑遺。吏將獲罪，神且乏祀。茲用慄憟危懼，謹以四月初吉，齋居蔬食。至于閏月辛丑，若時雨霑洽，蝗不能生，當與吏民躬執牲幣，以答神休。嗚呼！我州之望，不在神乎？父老謂神求無不獲，克有常德，以名茲山，其可不答，以愧此名？若曰：「歲之豐凶在天，非神之所得專」，吏將亦曰：「民之休戚在朝廷，我何知焉」，則誰任其責矣？上帝與吾君愛民之心一也。凡吏之可以請於朝者，既不敢不盡，則神之可以謁於帝者，宜無所不為。尚饗。
Translated text: The great Emperor on High has entrusted the people with the various gods of mountains and rivers who receive sacrifices in the area; just like the Son of Heaven1 has entrusted the people with ministers who guard this land. For officials and gods, their duties are the same. If they harm people’s livelihood or slacken in their duties, their faults will be on equal terms. I pity the people of this county who are suffering from such severe drought. Barely surviving the dislocation and starvation, their lives are as fragile as a strand of hair. Meanwhile, flying locusts are causing damage by spreading their eggs all over the fields. Once the larvae mature and fly around, the mulberry trees and crops will fall victim, leaving no substance for the people. Officials will be punished, and there will be no sacrifices for the god. In great fear, I have cautiously chosen the auspicious day2 of the first day of the fourth month to start fasting and taking vegetable meals. If it rains plentifully and all locusts perish by the xinchou day of the intercalary month, I shall lead officials and the people in preparing sacrificial animals and silks to repay the god’s favour.
Alas! The hope of our prefecture3 fully rests on the god. Local elders say that the god awards people whatever they pray for and is able to maintain the virtue of constancy. It was after this virtue that the mountain was named. How can the god not respond and thereby put shame on this name! Some may say that the harvest or failure of crops depends on Heaven; it is not something that a god can decide alone. Then officials can also say that the people’s joys and sorrows depend on the court; they are not something that I can know. Who, then, are going to bear the responsibilities? The Emperor on High and the emperor of this world share the same mind of caring for the people. Just as officials dare not spare any effort in pleading with the court, a god should also do everything he can to plead with the Emperor on High. Enjoy the sacrifice!
Source: Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037-1101), ‘Changshan qiyu wen’ 常山祈雨文 (Prayer for rain at Mountain Changshan), Dongpo quanji 東坡全集 (The Complete Anthology of Dongpo), Siku quanshu 四庫全書 edition, 99.6a-b.
2.2 Private prayer for safe travel
某携家之鎭，宵濟于江，若時之春，風濤方壯，惟神默相，如席之平，不腆醪羞，将此誠意。
Translated text: I will bring my whole family on the journey to my new position.4 We will be travelling on the river during the night. At that time, it will be spring and there will be strong winds and waves. May the god assist us silently and make [the waters] as smooth as a mat. This humble offering of wine and dishes conveys my sincerity.
Source: Zhen Dexiu 真德秀 (1178-1235), ‘Xixiajiang zhuwen’ 西峽江祝文 (Invocation prayer at River West Gorge), Xishan xiansheng Zhen wenzhong gong wenji 西山先生眞文忠公文集 (Anthology of the Master of the West Mountain, Honourable Zhen Wenzhong), Sibu congkan 四部叢刊 edition, 49.24a-b.
2.3 Private prayer for safe childbirth
女子有行，遽違慈侍，婦人免乳，實抱私憂，伏念臣妾劉氏，昨以姙娠，感於夢寐，逺父母兄弟，殆由驚噩而成，禱上下神祇，兾遂生全之望，果蒙化育，隂賜䕶持，旣無坐蓐之危，復有抱雛之慶。敢羞菲薦，不昧初心，伏願吉曜照臨，烖𨇠銷弭，乃安莞簟，聿開卜兆之祥，言采蘋蘩，益致壼儀之謹。
Translated text: As a married woman, she suddenly has to keep away from filial duties.5 When she is about to give birth, she indeed has indescribable worries. In my concern, my concubine6 Liu was disturbed in her dreams yesterday because of her pregnancy. Being far away from parents and siblings, she was probably frightened by a nightmare. I pray to gods above and below in the hope for safety in childbirth. If the gods indeed bless her in delivery and give her hidden protection, she will not only be exempt from the dangers of childbirth, but also be able to celebrate having a newborn. I make humble offerings and I will not forget what was initially on my mind. I humbly wish that all auspicious stars7 will come to shine and any disastrous traces will vanish, so that she can stay safe through childbirth and bring auspicious omens; and that she will be able to talk about her filial duties and follow the womanly way with even more diligence.
Source: Liu Kezhuang 劉克莊 (1187-1269), ‘Chenshi nü bao’an’ 陳氏女保安 (For protecting the safety of the daughter of the Chen family), Houcun xiansheng daquanji 後村先生大全集 (Complete Anthology of Liu Kezhuang) (Chengdu, 2008), 172.4393-94.
2.4 Template of prayer for thriving business
伏以交易市中，乃貨殖之道生；贊成意外，豈人力之能為。欲貿易以從心，仗神功而默佑。今據鄉貫奉神信士某洎眾信人等，現今在於某處開張鋪面，發賣某貨，涓今某年月日，謹備清酌牲筵，列在神前，特伸拜請：本鋪安奉興旺土地福德尊神、招財進寶童子、和合利市仙官、值日受事功曹。再伸拜請：上清正乙龍虎玄壇金輪如意敕法趙大元帥、斗中音樂府廿四員和合喜神、座下黑虎大神、一切神眾，悉仗真香，普通供養 (…)
伏願端居錫福，大道生財，同本同心，常安常樂。生意紛紛，如春意茂盛；財源滾滾，似水源長流。四方八面，主顧多招；近悅遠來，人情贊助。日進千文，行見堆金積玉；時招萬貫，佇看聚寶藏珍。出入皆逢青眼，收放盡遇信誠。坐賈行商，利息常有數倍；車裝船載，水陸盡得萬全。各欠賬目，早獲來還。應月鋪戶，貴顯提攜。凡干悃禱，悉仗帲幪，火化信儀，俯垂鑒納。
Translated text: We reckon that trading goods in the market is what produces the way of the merchants; any unexpected successes are beyond what men can do on their own. If one wishes the trading to go smoothly, he relies on gods’ merits and silent protection. Now XX, a worshipper8 of the gods from XX village, together with fellow worshippers, have opened a store at XX to distribute and sell XX. We have chosen the XX day of XX month in XX year to cautiously prepare pure wine and meat to present in front of the gods. We first bow to invite:9 the Earth God of Prosperity Who is the Noble God of Virtue and Blessings worshipped in the store, the Young Lad Summoning Wealth and Bringing Treasures, the Immortal Officer Benefiting the Market with Harmony and Agreements, and the appointed clerks who are on duty. We bow again to invite: the Great Marshal Zhao Who Implements the Imperial Law with a Golden Wheel and a Jade Sceptre on the Mysterious Altar of Dragon and Tiger (Mountain) from the Orthodox Unity of Supreme Purity, the Twenty-Four Gods of Joy, Harmony, and Agreements in the Music Department of the Dipper, the Great God of Black Tiger Attending to the Seat, and all other gods to share the offerings through the divine incense.
We humbly wish that the property [of the store] will bring blessings, and the proper way [of trading] will generate wealth; people who share the investment will have the same mind; they will constantly have peace and joy; the trading will be as busy as things thrive in spring; the source of wealth will surge like the spring of a river that flows far; from all directions customers will be attracted to come; those living close will be pleased and those from afar will keep coming; they will all be supportive and friendly. Each day we will make a profit of a thousand coins and as we move around we will see the wealth accumulate; every couple of hours we will attract ten thousand strings of coins and as we stay we will watch precious treasures gather; either going in or out, all we meet will be respectful people; either borrowing or lending, all we deal with will be people of integrity; either selling in the store or traveling for trade, profits will always multiply by several times; either transporting by carriage or by ship, all will be absolutely safe on water and land. We wish that each collectable debt will be paid back early; all tenants on monthly leases will be patronized by the noble and powerful. All we sincerely pray for relies on the gods’ protection. May the gods kindly examine and accept the offerings in the fire.10
Source: ‘Qing putudi’ 請舖土地 (Inviting the Earth God of the store), Qishen zouge 祈神奏格 (Standard memorials to petition gods), compiled by Cheng Minzheng 程敏政 (1445-1499), reprint in Zangwai daoshu 藏外道書 (Daoist writings not included in the canon) (Chengdu, 1992), vol. 17, 771.
2.5 A vow for rain
嗚呼！事勢迫矣，民望極矣，吾佛與仙眞之捄（救）不可不亟矣，是用冩哀誠而嘑愬，敢罄竭其肺肝，興玄雲之靉靆，沛大雨之瀰漫，起禾稼之将枯，洗瘡痍而復完，則某将大書深刻于巖石之上，昭聖功之不刋。嗚呼！謹告。
Translated text: Alas! The situation has become critical. The people are desperately in need [of rain]. It has come to a point when the Buddha and the perfected immortals must save us immediately. For this, I am writing in sorrow and sincerity to cry and appeal. I venture to exhaust my strength [to pray to the god]. If the god could start plenty of dark clouds, pour down heavy rain, rejuvenate the withering crops, and return the damaged to wholesomeness, I shall write about it in great detail and inscribe it deeply on rocks11 to demonstrate the god’s undeniable efficacy. Alas! With caution I pray.
Source: Zhen Dexiu 真德秀 (1178-1235), ‘Ji Daxian qiyu zhuwen’ 祭大仙祈雨祝文 (Prayer for rain during a sacrifice to the great immortal), Xishan xiansheng Zhen Wenzhong gong wenji 西山先生眞文忠公文集 (Anthology of the Master of the West Mountain, Honourable Zhen Wenzhong), Sibu congkan 四部叢刊 edition, 49.21b-22a.
2.6 Template of prayer for fulfilling a vow
伏以凡儕希濟，惟扣齒而𥸤天；神澤難忘，謹崩角而露悃。知恩當報，有許必酬。今拠鄉貫奉神酬恩信士某通家眷等，涓今某年月日，謹備原許福筵，列在家庭，預先召告土地尊神，酬謝某聖，仰仗功曹，召赴香筵，傳忱拜請某位尊神，參隨侍從，一切神祇，恭望降臨，鋻此微忱，受沾供奉。
于日所申情欵，不爲別緣，蓋為某于某時為某事，告許愿心而乞保，果蒙聖力以匡扶，感德知恩，銘心鏤骨，念念在懷，孜孜惟慕。自從欵許，向未答還，庸涓今日，特伸叩謝。當酬扶濟之恩，再迓帲幪之福。(…)
伏愿神意歡悅，聖澤流恩，菲陋不週，全仗海涵。伏望彩筆生春，仙官掌執。鋻兹酬謝之忱，乞注答還之字。仍冀家門清吉，人眷平安。四時無災，八節有慶。貿易興隆，財源茂盛。凡干旦夕，悉仗帲幪。下有信儀燎貢，上望聖慈鋻納。
Translated text: I reckon that when people hope to be saved, they have to click their teeth and call Heaven; as they cannot forget the gods’ blessings, people cautiously kowtow to show sincerity. One should be grateful for divine favours and should always pay them back; once a vow is made, one should always fulfil it. Now I, XX, a worshipper from XX village who wants to thank the god, together with all family members, have chosen the XX day of XX month in XX year to cautiously prepare a blissful banquet as promised earlier. Arranging the banquet in the family courtyard, we hope to report in advance to the noble God of Earth: we are offering our thanks to the god XX12, whom we rely on the clerks on duty to summon to the incense altar. Please forward our sincere invitation to the noble god of XX, all escorts and followers, and all other gods to descend and examine our humble sincerity, and to accept and enjoy the offerings.
What I report today is nothing other than the matter of XX, about which I, XX, had made a vow and pleaded for protection at the time of XX. I was indeed blessed by the gods’ power and have received protection and assistance. Our gratitude for [the gods’] virtue and acknowledgement of [the gods’] favour are deeply held in our hearts and carved on our bones. They occupy our every thought and leave us in great admiration. Ever since I made the vow, I have not yet fulfilled or repaid it. I have chosen this day to express our sincere thanks. I will pay back [the gods’] favour of assistance and I hope to receive further blessings and protection.
We humbly wish that the gods will be pleased, and divine blessings will flow; we beg [the gods’] forgiveness for our inadequate offerings. We humbly hope that the writing brush in colour will come to life as it is wielded by the immortal officers. They will examine our sincerity in repaying with thanks and we plead them to write down the words of ‘repaid and fulfilled.’13 We also wish for the purity and luck of the household and the safety of all family members; there will be no disasters in all four seasons and there will be celebrations on all Eight Festivals. We wish that the trading will thrive, and the source of wealth will be prosperous. All our sincere prayers rely on the gods’ protection. We present offerings in the fire from below. May the gods above kindly examine and accept them.
Source: ‘Huan shenfu wen’ 還神福文 (Prose to pay back the god’s blessings), Qishen zouge 祈神奏格 (Standard memorials to petition gods), compiled by Cheng Minzheng 程敏政 (1445-1499), reprint in Zangwai daoshu 藏外道書 (Daoist writings not included in the canon) (Chengdu, 1992), vol. 17, 779.
For more templates of prayers from the Standard memorials to petition gods, see Appendix 1.
Notes:
- Son of Heaven: meaning the emperor, who claimed to have the mandate from Heaven to rule. ↩︎
- auspicious day: there were almanac calendars stipulating that certain things should or should not be done on certain dates and which dates were favourable for certain events. ↩︎
- hope of our prefecture: the character 望 also meant a type of official sacrifices made from afar. ↩︎
- journey to a new position: a common scenario for local administrators, who would be posted to different places every few years. ↩︎
- filial duties: daily duties that women were supposed to fulfil towards their in-laws. ↩︎
- concubine: sharing a husband with the wife but having lower family and social status. ↩︎
- auspicious stars: in Chinese astrology and divination, the movement of stars could affect human fortune. ↩︎
- XX, a worshipper: in templates of prayers, XX or a blank space was for a worshipper or a ritual specialist to fill in names, matters concerned, and dates of ritual. ↩︎
- bow to invite: the two lists of gods invited below were mostly related to Daoist practices. ↩︎
- offerings in the fire: offerings were believed to reach the otherworld through the smoke from burning. ↩︎
- inscribe on rocks: rock inscriptions were often used to commemorate achievements, both of humans and the divine; many of them can still be seen on mountain cliffs in China today. ↩︎
- the god XX: a god’s name or title can be filled in on the template. ↩︎
- words of ‘repaid and fulfilled’: a fulfilled vow could be written off in the same way as book-keeping. ↩︎
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